Test Bank for The Mind's Machine, Foundations of Brain and Behavior 4th Edition, 4e by Neil V. Watson, S. Marc Breedlove TEST BANK

Test Bank for The Mind's Machine, Foundations of Brain and Behavior 4th Edition, 4e by Neil V. Watson, S. Marc Breedlove  

ISBN-13: 9781605359731

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Introduction: Building the Mind’s Machine

Intro.1 Behavioral Neuroscience Spans Past, Present, and Future

An understanding of the brain’s role in behavior has developed over centuries

Research objectives reflect specific theoretical orientations

The future of behavioral neuroscience is in interdisciplinary discovery and knowledge translation

Neuroplasticity

Social Neuroscience

Evolutionary Psychology

Epigenetics

Neuroeconomics

The Truly Final Frontier: Consciousness

Looking forward: A glimpse inside The Mind’s Machine

Recommended Reading

Introduction Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

1 Structure and Function

1.1 The Nervous System Is Made of Specialized Cells

The neuron has four principal divisions

Information is transmitted through synapses

The axon integrates and then transmits information

Glial cells protect and assist neurons

1.2 The Nervous System Extends throughout the Body

The peripheral nervous system has two divisions

The Somatic Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord

Anatomical Conventions for Describing the Anatomy of the Brain

The Outer Surface of the Brain

Development of Subdivisions Within the Brain

1.3 The Brain Shows Regional Specialization of Functions

The cerebral cortex performs complex cognitive processing

Important nuclei are hidden beneath the cerebral cortex

The midbrain has sensory and motor components

The brainstem controls vital body functions

Behaviors and cognitive processes depend on networks of brain regions

1.4 Specialized Support Systems Protect and Nourish the Brain

The brain floats within layers of membranes

The brain relies on two fluids for survival

1.5 Scientists Have Devised Clever Techniques for Studying the Structure and Function of the Nervous System

Histological techniques let us view the cells of the nervous system in varying ways

Regional Cell Counts

Individual Cell Shapes

Interconnections between Neurons

Brain-imaging techniques reveal the structure and function of the living brain

Computerized axial tomography

Magnetic resonance imaging

Functional brain imaging

Magnetic stimulation and mapping

1.6 Careful Research Design Is Essential for Progress in Behavioral Neuroscience

Three types of study designs probe brain-behavior relationships

Animal research is an essential part of life sciences research, including behavioral neuroscience

Behavioral neuroscientists use several levels of analysis

Recommended Reading

1. Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

2 Neurophysiology

2.1 Electrical Signals Are the Vocabulary of the Nervous System

A threshold amount of depolarization triggers an action potential

Ionic mechanisms underlie the action potential

Action potentials are actively propagated along the axon

Synapses cause local changes in the postsynaptic membrane potential

Spatial summation and temporal summation integrate synaptic inputs

2.2 Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of Events

Action potentials cause the release of transmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft

Receptor molecules recognize transmitters

The action of synaptic transmitters is stopped rapidly

Neural circuits underlie reflexes

2.3 EEGs Measure Gross Electrical Activity of the Human Brain

Electrical storms in the brain can cause seizures

Recommended Reading

2. Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

3 The Chemistry of Behavior

3.1 Synaptic Transmission Is a Complex Electrochemical Process

3.2 Neurotransmitter Substances Differ in Their Chemical Structure and in Their Distribution within the Brain

The most abundant neurotransmitters are amino acids

Glutamate

GABA

Four classical neurotransmitters modulate brain activity

Acetylcholine

Dopamine

Serotonin

Norepinephrine

Many peptides function as neurotransmitters

Some neurotransmitters are gases

3.3 Drugs Fit Like Keys into Molecular Locks

Drugs are administered and eliminated in many different ways

The effects of a drug depend on its dose

Repeated treatments may reduce the effectiveness of drugs

3.4 Drugs Affect Each Stage of Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission

Some drugs alter presynaptic processes

Transmitter production

Transmitter release

Transmitter Clearance

Some drugs alter postsynaptic processes

Transmitter Receptor Activation

Postsynaptic Intracellular Processes

3.5 Some Neuroactive Drugs Provide Relief from Mental Illness and Pain

Antipsychotics relieve symptoms of schizophrenia

Antidepressants reduce chronic mood problems

Anxiolytics combat anxiety

Opiates have powerful painkilling effects

3.6 Some Neuroactive Drugs Are Used to Alter Conscious Experience

Cannabinoids have many effects

Stimulants increase neural activity

Nicotine

Cocaine

Amphetamine

Alcohol acts as both a stimulant and a depressant

Hallucinogens alter sensory perceptions

3.7 Substance Abuse and Addiction Are Global Social Problems

Competing models of substance abuse have been proposed

Recommended Reading

3. Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

4 Development of the Brain

4.1 Growth and Development of the Brain Are Orderly Processes

Development of the nervous system can be divided into six distinct stages

Cell proliferation produces cells that become neurons or glia

In the adult brain, newly born neurons aid learning

The death of many neurons is a normal part of development

4.2 An Explosion of Synapse Formation Is Followed by Synapse Rearrangement

Retaining too many synapses can impair intellectual development

Visual deprivation can lead to blindness

Early exposure to visual patterns helps fine-tune connections in the visual system

4.3 Experience Can Affect Brain Development by Altering Gene Expression

Genotype is fixed at birth, but phenotype changes throughout life

Experience regulates gene expression in the developing and mature brain

Gene expression in the brain can be affected by mothering

4.4 The Brain Continues to Change as We Grow Older

Memory impairment correlates with hippocampal shrinkage during aging

Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a decline in cerebral metabolism

Recommended Reading

4 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

5 The Sensorimotor System

5.1 Sensory Processing and the Somatosensory System

Receptor cells detect various forms of energy

Receptor cells convert sensory signals into electrical activity

Sensory information processing is selective and analytical

Sensory events are encoded as streams of action potentials

Sensory neurons respond to stimuli falling in their receptive fields

Receptors May Show Adaptation to Unchanging Stimuli

Sometimes We Need Receptors to be Quiet

Successive levels of the CNS process sensory information

Sensory Cortex is Highly Organized

Sensory brain regions influence one another and change over time

5.2 Pain: The Body’s Emergency Signaling System

A discrete pain pathway projects from body to brain

Peripheral Receptors Get the Initial Message

Special neural pathways carry pain information to the brain

Pain control can be difficult

Analgesic drugs are highly effective

Electrical stimulation can sometimes relieve pain

Placebos effectively control pain in some people, but not all

Activation of endogenous opioids relieves pain

5.3 Movement and the Motor System

Muscles and the skeleton work together to move the body

Sensory Feedback From Muscles, Tendons, And Joints Regulates Movement

The spinal cord mediates “automatic” responses and receives inputs from the brain

Motor cortex plans and executes movements—and more

Extrapyramidal systems regulate and fine-tune motor commands

Damage to Extrapyramidal Systems Impairs Movement

Recommended Reading

5 Visual Summary

Test Bank for The Mind's Machine, Foundations of Brain and Behavior 4th Edition, 4e by Neil V. Watson, S. Marc Breedlove

List of Key Terms

6 Hearing, Balance, Taste, and Smell

6.1 Hearing: Pressure Waves in the Air Are Perceived as Sound

The external ear captures, focuses, and filters sound

The middle ear concentrates sound energies

The cochlea converts vibrational energy into neural activity

The hair cells transduce movements of the basilar membrane into electrical signals

Auditory signals run from cochlea to cortex

6.2 Specialized Neural Systems Extract Information from Auditory Signals

The pitch of sounds is encoded in two complementary ways

Brainstem systems compare the ears to localize sounds

The auditory cortex processes complex sound

6.3 Hearing Loss Is a Widespread Problem

6.4 Balance: The Inner Ear Senses the Position and Movement of the Head

Some forms of vestibular excitation produce motion sickness

6.5 Taste: Chemicals in Foods Are Perceived as Tastes

Tastes excite specialized receptor cells on the tongue

The five basic tastes are signaled by specific sensors on taste cells

Salty

Sour

Sweet

Bitter

Umami

Taste information is transmitted to several parts of the brain

6.6 Smell: Chemicals in the Air Elicit Odor Sensations

The sense of smell starts with receptor neurons in the nose

Olfactory information projects from the olfactory bulbs to several brain regions

Many vertebrates possess a vomeronasal system

Recommended Reading

6 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

7 Vision

7.1 The Vision Pathway Extends from the Eye to the Brain

Visual processing begins in the retina

Photoreceptors respond to light by releasing less neurotransmitter

Different mechanisms enable the eyes to work over a wide range of light intensities

Acuity is best in foveal vision

Neural signals travel from the retina to several brain regions

The retina projects to the brain in a topographic fashion

7.2 Neurons at Different Levels of the Visual System Have Very Different Receptive Fields

Neurons in the retina and the LGN have concentric receptive fields

Spatial-frequency analysis is unintuitive but efficient

Neurons in the visual cortex beyond area V1 have complex receptive fields and help identify forms

Visual perception of motion is analyzed by a special system that includes cortical area V5

7.3 Color Vision Depends on Integrating Information from the Retinal Cones

Color perception requires receptor cells that differ in their sensitivities to different wavelengths

Some retinal ganglion cells and LGN cells show spectral opponency

Some visual cortical cells and regions appear to be specialized for color perception

7.4 What versus Where: Cortical Visual Areas Are Organized into Two Streams

Visual neuroscience can be applied to alleviate some visual deficiencies

Reducing Visual Impairment

Exercising Vision

Recommended Reading

7 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

8 Hormones and Sex

8.1 Hormones Act in a Great Variety of Ways throughout the Body

Hormones are one of several types of chemical communication

Hormones can be classified by chemical structure

Hormones act on a wide variety of cellular mechanisms

Peptide and amine hormones

Steroid hormones

Hormones can have different effects on different target organs

Each endocrine gland secretes specific hormones

The posterior pituitary releases two hormones directly into the bloodstream

Posterior pituitary hormones can affect social behavior

Feedback control mechanisms regulate the secretion of hormones

Hypothalamic releasing hormones govern the anterior pituitary

Two anterior pituitary tropic hormones act on the gonads

The gonads produce steroid hormones, regulating reproduction

The Testes

The Ovaries

Relations Among Gonadal Hormones

Hormonal and neural systems interact to produce integrated responses

8.2 Reproductive Behavior Is Regulated by the Brain

Copulation brings gametes together

Gonadal steroids activate sexual behavior

Estrogen and progesterone act on a lordosis circuit that spans from brain to muscle

Androgens act on a neural system for male reproductive behavior

Maternal behaviors are governed by several sex-related hormones

The hallmark of human sexual behavior is diversity

Hormones play only a permissive role in human sexual behavior

8.3 Genetic and Hormonal Mechanisms Guide the Development of Masculine and Feminine Structures

Sex chromosomes direct sexual differentiation of the gonads

Gonadal hormones direct sexual differentiation of the body

Changes in sexual differentiation processes result in predictable changes in development

Reduced androgen signaling can block masculinization of the body

How should we define sex—by genes, gonads, genitals?

Early testicular secretions result in masculine behavior in adulthood

Several regions of the nervous system display prominent sexual dimorphism

The Preoptic Area (POA) of Rats

The Spinal cord in Mammals

Social influences also affect sexual differentiation of the nervous system

Do fetal hormones masculinize human behaviors in adulthood?

What determines a person’s sexual orientation?

Recommended Reading

8 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

9 Homeostasis: Active Regulation of the Internal Environment

9.1 Homeostatic Systems Share Several Key Features

Negative feedback allows precise control

Redundancy ensures critical needs are met

Animals use behavioral compensation to adjust to environmental changes

9.2 The Body’s Water Is Actively Balanced between Two Major Compartments

Osmotic thirst occurs when the extracellular fluid becomes too salty

Hypovolemic thirst is triggered by a loss of fluid volume

We don’t stop drinking just because the throat and mouth are wet

9.3 Our Bodies Regulate Energy Balance and Nutrient Intake to Serve Current Needs and Prepare for Future Demands

Insulin is essential for obtaining, storing, and using food energy

9.4 The Hypothalamus Coordinates Multiple Systems That Control Hunger

Hormones from the body drive a hypothalamic appetite controller

Other systems also play a role in hunger and satiety

9.5 Obesity and Eating Disorders Are Difficult to Treat

Eating disorders can be life-threatening

Recommended Reading

9 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

10 Biological Rhythms and Sleep

10.1 Biological Rhythms Organize Behavior

Circadian rhythms are generated by an endogenous clock

The hypothalamus houses a circadian clock

In mammals, light information from the eyes reaches the SCN directly

Circadian rhythms have been genetically dissected in flies and mice

10.2 Sleep Is an Active Process

Human sleep exhibits different stages

We do our most vivid dreaming during REM sleep

Different species provide clues about the evolution of sleep

10.3 Our Sleep Patterns Change across the Life Span

Most people sleep appreciably less as they age

Manipulating sleep reveals an underlying structure

Sleep recovery may take time

What are the biological functions of sleep?

Conservation of Energy

Niche Adaptation

Physical Restoration

Memory Consolidation

Some humans sleep remarkably little, yet function normally

At least four interacting neural systems underlie sleep

The reticular formation wakes up the forebrain

The pons triggers REM sleep

10.4 Sleep Disorders Can Be Serious, Even Life-Threatening

A hypothalamic sleep center was revealed by the study of narcolepsy

Some minor dysfunctions are associated with non-REM sleep

Some people appear to be acting out their nightmares

Insomniacs have trouble falling asleep or staying asleep

Although many drugs affect sleep, there is no perfect sleeping pill

Everyone should practice good sleep hygiene

Recommended Reading

10 Visual Summary

Test Bank for The Mind's Machine, Foundations of Brain and Behavior 4th Edition, 4e by Neil V. Watson, S. Marc Breedlove

List of Key Terms

11 Emotions, Aggression, and Stress

11.1 Theories of Emotion Integrate Physiological and Behavioral Processes

Do emotions cause bodily changes, or vice versa?

Is there a core set of emotions?

Facial expressions have complex functions in communication

Facial expressions are mediated by muscles, cranial nerves, and CNS pathways

11.2 Do Distinct Brain Circuits Mediate Different Emotions?

Brain lesions also affect emotions

The amygdala is crucial for emotional learning

Different emotions activate different regions of the human brain

11.3 Neural Circuitry, Hormones, and Synaptic Transmitters Mediate Violence and Aggression

Androgens seem to increase aggression

Brain circuits mediate aggression

The biopsychology of human violence is a controversial topic

11.4 Stress Activates Many Bodily Responses

The stress response progresses in stages

There are individual differences in the stress response

Stress and emotions affect our health

Why does chronic stress suppress the immune system?

Recommended Reading

11 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

12 Psychopathology

12.1 The Toll of Psychiatric Disorders Is Huge

Schizophrenia is a major neurobiological challenge in psychiatry

Schizophrenia has a heritable component

Family studies

Adoption studies

Twin studies

Individual genes

An integrative model of schizophrenia emphasizes the interaction of factors

The brains of some people with schizophrenia show structural and functional changes

Ventricular Abnormalities

Cortical Abnormalities

The severity of schizophrenia led to desperate treatment attempts

Antipsychotic medications revolutionized the treatment of schizophrenia

The Dopamine Hypothesis

The Glutamate Hypothesis

12.2 Mood Disorders Are the Most Common Psychopathologies

Inheritance is an important determinant of depression

The brain changes with depression

A wide variety of treatments are available for depression

Why do more females than males develop depression?

Scientists are still searching for animal models of depression

Sleep characteristics change in affective disorders

In bipolar disorder, mood cycles between extremes

12.3 There Are Several Types of Anxiety Disorders

Drug treatments provide clues to the mechanisms of anxiety

In post-traumatic stress disorder, horrible memories won’t go away

In obsessive-compulsive disorder, thoughts and acts keep repeating

Recommended Reading

12 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

13 Memory and Learning

13.1 There Are Several Kinds of Learning and Memory

For Patient H.M., the present vanished into oblivion

Damage to the medial diencephalon can also cause amnesia

Brain damage can destroy autobiographical memories while sparing general memories

13.2 Different Forms of Nondeclarative Memory Involve Different Brain Regions

Different types of nondeclarative memory serve varying functions

Animal research confirms the various brain regions involved in different attributes of memory

Brain regions involved in learning and memory: A summary

Successive processes capture, store, and retrieve information in the brain

Long-term memory has vast capacity but is subject to distortion

13.3 Memory Storage Requires Physical Changes in the Brain

Plastic changes at synapses can be physiological or structural

Varied experiences and learning cause the brain to change and grow

Invertebrate nervous systems show synaptic plasticity

Classical conditioning relies on circuitsin the mammalian cerebellum

13.4 Synaptic Plasticity Can Be Measured in Simple Hippocampal Circuits

NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors collaborate in LTP

Is LTP a mechanism of memory formation?

Recommended Reading

13 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

14 Attention and Higher Cognition

14.1 Attention Focuses Cognitive Processing on Specific Objects

There are limits on attention

Attention is deployed in several different ways

Some types of stimuli just grab our attention

Attention helps us to search for specific objects in a cluttered world

14.2 Targets of Attention: Attention Alters the Functioning of Many Brain Regions

Distinctive patterns of brain electrical activity mark shifts of attention

Attention affects the activity of neurons

14.3 Sources of Attention: A Network of Brain Sites Creates and Directs Attention

Two subcortical systems guide shifts of attention

Several cortical areas are crucial for generating and directing attention

A Dorsal Frontoparietal Network For Voluntary (Top-Down) Control Of Attention

A Right Temporoparietal Network For Reflexive (Bottom-Up) Shifts Of Attention

Brain disorders can cause specific impairments of attention

Right-Hemisphere Lesions

Bilateral Lesions

14.4 Consciousness, Thought, and Decision Making Are Mysterious Products of the Brain

Which brain regions are active when we are conscious?

Some aspects of consciousness are easier to study than others

A flexible frontal system plans and monitors our behavior

We make decisions using a frontal network that weighs risk and benefit

Recommended Reading

14 Visual Summary

List of Key Terms

15 Language and Lateralization

15.1 The Left and Right Hemispheres of the Brain Are Different

The two hemispheres process information differently in most people

The Right-Ear Advantage

Visual Perception Of Linguistic Stimuli

The left and right hemispheres differ in their auditory specializations

Handedness is associated with cerebral lateralization

15.2 Right-Hemisphere Damage Impairs Specific Types of Cognition

In prosopagnosia, faces are unrecognizable

15.3 Left-Hemisphere Damage Can Cause Aphasia

Damage to a left anterior speech zone causes nonfluent (or Broca’s) aphasia

Damage to a left posterior speech zone causes fluent (or Wernicke’s) aphasia

Widespread left-hemisphere damage can obliterate language capabilities

Competing models describe the left-hemisphere language network

Brain mapping helps us understand the organization of language in the brain

Functional neuroimaging technologies let us visualize activity in the brain’s language zones during speech

15.4 Human Languages Share Basic Features

Language has both unlearned and learned components

Nonhuman primates engage in elaborate vocal behavior

Many different species engage in vocal communication

Some people struggle throughout their lives to read

Brain damage may cause specific impairments in reading

15.5 Recovery of Function after Brain Damage: Stabilization and Reorganization Are Crucial Stages

Rehabilitation and retraining can help recovery from brain and spinal cord injury

Recommended Reading

15 Visual Summary